EMPLOYMENT

Most of what is included here explores the discrimination against women with disabilities in employment in general, and much of it covers women with physical or sensory disabilities. But also included are articles concerning the affect of disability (whether a child’s or a mother’s) on work participation; an increasing amount of international perspectives of women with disabilities and employment; restrictions placed on women who may be able to work but are constrained by governmental definitions of “disability” and are often dependent on welfare or similar assistance programs; the effect of gender on employment in disability-related fields; and many other topics. The topic of women and care work (most often unpaid care) may also of great interest. See the section on Women and Care for the resources on this topic.

Albiston, C. R. (2005, March). Bargaining in the shadow of social institutions: Competing discourses and social change in workplace mobilization of civil rights. Law & Society Review, 39(1), 11-50.

The Family and Medical Leave Act requires employers to provide job-protected leave, but little is known about how these leave rights operate in practice or how they interact with other normative systems to construct the meaning of leave. Drawing on interviews with workers who negotiated contested leaves, this study examines how social institutions influence workplace mobilization of these rights. I find that leave rights remain embedded within institutionalized conceptions of work, gender, and disability that shape workers' perceptions, preferences, and choices about mobilizing their rights. I also find, however, that workers can draw on law as a culture discourse to challenge these assumptions, to build coalitions, and to renegotiate the meaning of leave.

Acs, G., & Loprest, P. (1999, Winter). The effect of disabilities on exits from AFDC. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 18(1), 28-49.

The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (PRWORA) of 1996 replaces AFDC, the largest means-tested cash assistance program for low-income families, with the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) block grant. Unlike AFDC, assistance under TANF is limited to five years in a lifetime, and states are required to move families from the assistance rolls into jobs. But not all adult welfare recipients can easily move to work because either they themselves are disabled or they have a child with disabilities requiring special care. This article examines the extent and impact of disability among families on AFDC to gain insight into the potential impact of changes under TANF. Using data from the 1990 Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), we find that in nearly 30 percent of the families on AFDC either the mother or child has a disability. Furthermore, we find that having a disability significantly lowers the probability that a woman leaves AFDC for work but not for other reasons, such as a change in living arrangements. Finally, we find little evidence that having a child with a disability affects the probability of leaving AFDC for any reason.

Arber, S., & Ginn, J. (1995). Gender differences in the relationship between paid employment and informal care. Work, Employment & Society, 9(3), 445-471.

This paper analyses the circumstances under which providing informal care has an adverse impact on paid employment, using data from the 1990 General Household Survey which identified 2,700 informal carers. The relationship between informal caring and employment participation is complex and differs by gender and marital status. Paid employment is lowered for adults providing care within their household. The effect is greater for women than for men, and varies with the closeness of the kin relationship between carer and care-recipient. Women caring for a handicapped child are least likely to be in full-time work. Care for a spouse depresses both men's and women's employment. The effect of caring for a co-resident parent is least for married men and greatest for married women. The assumption that women's increased labour force participation will reduce their availability as informal carers for elderly parents is largely unfounded. This care is mainly for elderly parents living in another household, and is associated with reduced hours of employment but not lower overall rates of employment. The norm of combining paid work and informal caring results in very high total hours of informal and paid work.

Baldwin, M., & Johnson, W. G. (1995). Labor marked discrimination against women with disabilities. Industrial Relations, 34(4), 555-577.

The authors examine through quantitative research the extent of wage discrimination and the employment effects of wage discrimination against women with disabilities. None of these women had severe disabilities that are usually subject to high levels of prejudice. The authors found that the wage differentials attributed to disability discrimination were relatively small, perhaps because the women in the study had disabilities that were subject to little prejudice. However, they point out that the total burden of discrimination is large because these employees also experience gender discrimination. Despite this, the authors do not show that gender related discrimination is worse for women who have a disability.

Baumann, E. (1997). Job search for women with disabilities: A qualitative study on the question: What role does gender and disability play in job search? Oakland, CA: University of California/Berkeley, School of Public Health, Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Independent Living and Disability Policy, World Institute on Disability.

Study using qualitative methods to examine the experiences of U.S. women with visible, physical disabilities conducting a job search after obtaining a college degree. Data are from interviews with 8 women. Participants were asked about their experiences conducting job searches, support from the feminist and disability movements, and career motivations. The study concludes with policy recommendations and recommendations for future research.

Benz, M. R., Doren, B., & Yovanoff, P. (1998). Crossing the great divide: Predicting productive engagement for young women with disabilities. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 21(1), 3-16.

Article comparing factors associated with better employment and educational outcomes for young women and young men with disabilities. Data are from interviews with 422 Oregon and Nevada high school students with disabilities and their parents. Participants were interviewed in their last year of high school and again one year later. It was found that 3 factors predicted better outcomes for both young women and young men (self-esteem at time of school exit, no continuing need for personal/social instruction, and no continuing need for vocational instruction). Three factors predicted outcomes for young women only: they were less likely to be engaged in productive work or educational activities one year after high school if they had parenting responsibilities or came from a family with a low annual income, and they were more likely to be engaged in productive work and education activities when they and their parents agreed on the students' postschool goals.

Botuck, S., Levy, J. M., & Rimmerman A. (1996, September). Gender-related differences in placement rates of young adults with mental retardation and severe learning disabilities. International Journal of Rehabilitation Research, 19(3), 259-663.

This study examined placement outcomes for 133 individuals (most aged 17 to 21) with mental retardation or severe learning disability. Nearly 50% of the men but only 1% of the women were competitively employed. Results suggest the need for more rehabilitation training for women, focusing on self-determination skills (assertiveness, self-advocacy, communication); specific vocational skills; and sexuality training.

Bounds, T. A., Schopp, L., Johnstone, B., Unger, C., & Goldman, H. (2003). Gender differences in a sample of vocational rehabilitation clients with TBI. Neurorehabilitation, 18(3), 189-196.

Because traumatic brain injury affects between 1.5 and 2 million individuals per year and results in long term vocational and financial difficulties, there is growing interest in determining those factors that predict successful outcomes for specific groups of individuals with TBI. An NIH consensus panel on TBI has suggested that women are one group that needs more attention, particularly given the studies indicating that men and women experience different cognitive [14], emotional [19], and vocational outcomes following TBI [5]. The current study evaluated differences in injury severity, demographics, neuropsychological abilities, and vocational and financial outcomes for 78 persons with TBI (55 male, 23 female) who received services from a state Vocational Rehabilitation Division (DVR). Despite similar injury severity, neuropsychological and demographic characteristics, more men (43.6%) received Maintenance services from MO-DVR than women (21.7%). Of note, only 4.4% of the women were successfully employed through DVR, compared to 23.6% of the men. In addition, 73.9% of the women had services terminated after being accepted by DVR but before services were initiated, compared to 56.4% of the men. The significance of these results is discussed, as are the limitations of the current project.

Burke, R. J. (1999, January). Disability and women’s work experiences: An exploratory study. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 19(12), 21-33.

Presents the findings of a questionnaire sent to nine occupational groups where women predominate such as healthcare, teaching and childcare, together with other forms placed in day-care and women’s centres in Ontario. Looks at disability, personal demographics, the work situation, workplace stress, physical demands, psychosomatic symptoms, job satisfaction, insecurity, harassment and family pressures. Discusses findings suggesting that disabled women tend to have more negative work experiences, possibly due to previous education problems, discrimination and the nature of roles offered which lead to lower income levels in lower status roles.

Chouinard, V., & Crooks, V. A. (2005, January). 'Because they have all the power and I have none': State restructuring of income and employment supports and disabled women's lives in Ontario, Canada. Disability & Society, 20(1), 19-32

We examine the connections between neo-liberal forms of state restructuring and intervention in disabled people's lives, looking in particular at how these have affected disabled women's experiences of an income support program, the Ontario Disability Support Program (ODSP), in Ontario, Canada. We first outline why and how state programs have been re-designed and implemented in increasingly harsh ways as a result of such neo-liberal forms of state restructuring. Even groups formerly considered among the 'deserving poor' have found their access to social assistance diminished. We then argue that this is an outcome of state programs, policies and practices which are re-asserting and more deeply entrenching 'ableness' as a necessary condition of citizenship, inclusion and access to justice. Finally, we illustrate how disabled women's lives and well-being have been altered as a result of changes in the provision of these forms of state assistance using in-depth semi-structured interviews conducted with 10 women in Ontario.

Cohen, P. N., & Petrescu-Prahova, M. (2003, December 12). Care work, gender inequality and the state: Women's employment and children with disabilities. Paper presented at CRF Seminar Series 2003-2004, The Center for Research on Families, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA. Retrieved March 8, 2005 from http://depts.washington.edu/crfam/seminarseries03-04/Cohen%20&%20Petrescu_2003.pdf

Despite the deinstitutionalization of people with disabilities in the U.S.A., much of the care for children with disabilities is performed at home, where care work is largely women's work. Thus, the gender division of labor in the care for children with disabilities, in the absence of greater institutional or state support, is one mechanism for the reproduction of gender inequality more broadly. Using new data on disabilities from the 2000 Decennial Census, we test for an association between the presence of children with disabilities and the division of paid work between husbands and wives. The results are consistent with other evidence that when care work is to be done within families, it falls disproportionately to women--undermining women's career mobility and contributing to gender inequality in the labor market as well as within families.

Crow, K., & Foley, S. (2002, September). A common path: Navigating your way to successful negotiations in the workplace. Boston, MA: Working it Out Together, Institute on Community Inclusion. Retrieved April 7, 2005 from http://www.communityinclusion.org/publications/pdf/women2.pdf

Provides tips to help women with disabilities be proactive in successfully negotiating a job accommodation or workplace modification. Three expert panelists presented these tips during a seminar held by Working It Out Together, a project aimed at understanding the experiences of women with disabilities in the workplace. Includes a list of resources for additional information.

Doe, T., & Kimpson, S. (1999, March). Enabling income: CPP disability benefits and women with disabilities. Ottawa, ON: Research Directorate, Status of Women Canada. Retrieved March 1, 2005 from http://www.swc-cfc.gc.ca/pubs/0662279247/199910_0662279247_e.pdf

The Canada Pension Plan (CPP) is a contributory insurance program designed to be universal for all working Canadians, originally intended to replace a portion of lost income for workers at retirement or disablement. Currently, women (and men) with disabilities who show the capacity to earn income are generally disallowed CPP disability benefits because of the strict definition of “disability” and administrative inconsistencies. This research uses existing quantitative data and new qualitative data gathered in focus groups of disabled women in four cities across Canada, including qualitative data from a focus group with CPP administrators who were consulted on how the CPP currently works before developing cost-effective recommendations to “enable income.” These alternate disability pension policies would distribute resources equitably and respond to circumstances in the lives of women with disabilities, such as fluctuating health and ability to work. Although it is recognized that any policy reforms would affect both women and men with disabilities, this research focuses on women because of the inordinately adverse impact of current official federal definitions of work and disability, and thus policy, on the lives of disabled women. The report contends that, by eliminating the penalty for working, the CPP could empower women, provide incentives for returning to work by removing the threat of losing CPP disability benefits, generate needed income for the CPP and increase taxable dollars for general revenue. The proposed changes extend recent (1995) policy changes focused on creating “work incentives” for people with disabilities and would allow disabled women (and men) to return to work when they are able, without penalty, until such time as they can sustain themselves financially. Suggested policy reforms also address the need to redefine “disability,” aligning it more closely with the complex reality of being a woman living with disability. Themes emerging from these women’s experiences of the CPP demonstrate the difficulties they experience, including the fear of losing secured CPP disability pension income if they engage in paid employment.

Doren, B., & Benz, M. R. (1998, Winter). Employment inequality revisited: Predictors of better employment outcomes for young women with disabilities in transition. Journal of Special Education, 31(4), 425-442.

Young women with disabilities are more likely to experience poorer postschool employment outcomes than young men with disabilities. This study explores factors associated with better employment outcomes for both young women and young men with disabilities, and factors associated uniquely with better outcomes for young women. Findings indicate that two factors predict better outcomes for both young women and young men with disabilities: having two or more job experiences while in high school, and having used the self-family-friend network to find their postschool job. Females who came from a family with a low household annual income, who had low self-esteem at the time of exit from high school, and who fit both of these characteristics were much less likely to be competitively employed out of school than females who did not fit these characteristics. These variables did not affect the employment status of males in the study. Implications for both practice and research are discussed.

Dyck, I. (1995, February). Hidden geographies: The changing lifeworlds of women with multiple sclerosis. Social Science & Medicine, 40(3), 307-320.

This paper discusses the microgeographies of unemployed women with Multiple Sclerosis, as they manage the physical, social and economic consequences of their illness. Recent directions in the geography of health and health care draw attention to the relationships between space, place and health experience, and in this paper a focus on the everyday lives of women with Multiple Sclerosis reveals the complex interweaving of space, physical impairment and gender in how they experience place. In-depth interviews were used in the study to investigate how women occupied and used home and neighbourhood space after leaving the paid labour force. The majority of women were found to experience shrinking social and geographical worlds which rendered their lives increasingly hidden from view as patterns of social interaction changed and use of public space diminished. The paper discusses the women's residential and household changes, mediated by marital and socio-economic status, and presents two brief case studies to illustrate the remapping of the meanings of work and place as women renegotiate their lifeworlds. The focus of the study on the spatio-temporal settings of the women's everyday lives revealed an interplay of biomedical discourse, policy structures, sociocultural norms and local sets of social relations that shaped the strategies the women used in reconstructing their lives. The women showed a diversity of responses, but these were all characterized by a restructuring of home and neighbourhood space, a recordering of personal relationships and increasing interpenetration of the public sphere in their private lives. The findings suggest that attention to the body in its geographical as well as social context provides an avenue for investigating the links between subjective experience and the broader social relations and processes which shape the illness experience.

Dyck, I., & Jongbloed, L. (2000). Women with multiple sclerosis and employment issues: A focus on social and institutional environments. Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 67(5), 337-346.

Article examining employment issues and workplace experiences of women with multiple sclerosis (MS), with analysis focused on the social and institutional dimensions of the environment. The analysis draws on data from a mixed method study using in-depth interviews and a survey. Findings indicate that although severity of symptoms affects employment status, women's ability to work is also affected by non-medical factors such as a supportive work environment, modification of work conditions, and a supportive home environment with the possibility of delegating household tasks.

England, K. (2003). Disabilities, gender and employment: Social exclusion, employment equity and Canadian banking. In V. Chouinard & V. A. Crooks (Eds.), Disability in society and space [Feature issue]. The Canadian Geographer, 47(4), 429-450.

People with disabilities, especially women, suffer from appallingly high rates of poverty, and paid work is frequently cited as a primary route out of poverty. I draw on feminist analyses of work and disability studies to reflect on the Canadian federal government's Employment Equity Act. I use the example of the 'Big Six' banks to investigate the numerical representation and occupational distribution of women and men with disabilities compared to their counterparts without disabilities. However, social justice in the workplace is at least as much about the quality of social relationships as it is about statistical effects. Reaching workplace equity also involves the creation of a workplace climate where people with disabilities experience supportive and responsive supervision, along with a sense of being respected and valued. I assess the banks' progress towards identifying and eliminating discriminatory disabling barriers. I close with a discussion of workplace climate and locate the Act in the context of a broader network of change that includes challenging ableism.

Fawcett, G. (2000, May). Bringing down the barriers: The labour market and women with disabilities in Ontario. Ottawa: Canadian Council on Social Development. Retrieved April 4, 2005 from http://www.ccsd.ca/pubs/2000/wd/index.htm

“This report provides the most up-to-date statistics available on working-age women with disabilities. Of particular interest to those who work at the community level are the statistics at the Census Metropolitan Area (CMA) level within Ontario. Integrating quantitative research with qualitative research, this report provides insights into the complex interplay of factors that create employment barriers for women with disabilities. While women and men with disabilities are typically both affected by the same barriers to employment, they are not always affected to the same degree or in the same way. Because of both their gender and their disability, women often face a unique obstacle course when trying to navigate their way through the world of paid work.”

Feist-Price, S., & Khanna, N. (2003, January). Employment inequality for women with disabilities. Special feature: Women and disability [Part II]. Off Our Backs, 33(1/2).

Since the end of World War II, women worldwide have been participating in the labor force. The increase has been most marked among married women, as well as those with children, suggesting that a woman's work life is now less likely to be interrupted by child rearing. Despite these improvements, however, women with disabilities often have with fewer employment opportunities than both women without disabilities, and men with disabilities. According to some researchers, women with disabilities are more likely to experience poor post-school employment outcomes, consistently earn less money, have more negative employment experiences, and are routinely assigned to stereotypically "female" jobs.

Fulton, S. A., & Sabornie, E. J. (1994, Summer). Evidence of employment inequality among females with disabilities. Journal of Special Education, 28(2), 149-165.

Women consistently earn less than men. This holds true for individuals with and without disabilities. Women with disabilities, however, have more negative employment experiences than do men with disabilities. The purpose of this article is to explore the less than desirable conditions that women with disabilities face in employment. Studies dealing primarily with the employment outcomes of females and males with disabilities are reviewed, followed by recommendations for the field of special education. We suggest that women with disabilities are dually disadvantaged in employment when gender interacts with disability. Studies dealing primarily with the employment outcomes of females and males with disabilities are reviewed, followed by recommendations for the field of special education. We suggest that women with disabilities are dually disadvantaged in employment when gender interacts with disability.

Hanson, N. (2002, April 10). On approval: The geography of disabled women and work. Paper given at the New Directions in Disability seminar series, Centre for Disability Studies, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK. Retreived March 1, 2005 from http://www.leeds.ac.uk/disability-studies/archiveuk/Hanson/On%20Approval.pdf

“Failure to recognise the potential (economic or otherwise) of disabled persons within the labour market has left this segment of the population with few alternatives for gaining access to essential goods and services…. Disabled women face additional…role complexity owing to assumed private domestic and parenting duties, coupled with public gender role expectations.”

Hawley, J. (2003). From the margins: Voices of women with disabilities. International Journal of Disability, Community & Rehabilitation, 2(2).

Employment is considered a key element in full citizenship and is strongly linked to both disability-related supports and incomes. Employment provides a sense of fulfillment and self-worth. It is also the best defense against poverty. With the lowest rate of labour force success and one of the highest rates of poverty in Canada, women with disabilities are the most employment challenged of any adult group. This interaction of gender and disability is further pronounced by racial, cultural, and sexual orientation.

The researcher uses her twenty years of experience of working with women with disabilities to construct fictionalized accounts of the vocational rehabilitation experiences of women. This collection of short fiction highlights the economic, psychological, attitudinal, and systemic challenges that women with disabilities experience as they attempt to enter or re-enter the paid work force.

The stories cover a number of themes: self-confidence and relationship to reality is undermined without the authentication of a disability; the prevalence of abuse, both as the etiology of a disability and the vulnerability for abuse for a women with a disability; the interconnections between abuse dynamics and vocational development patterns; the impact of the social construct of women as caregivers; income support polices that contribute to the feminization of poverty; negative societal attitudes toward women and the resulting lack of support; and gender bias in career counselling. These accounts are intended to challenge and transform the rehabilitation praxis.

Henriksson, C. M., Liedberg, G. M., & Gerdle, B. (2005, June). Women with fibromyalgia: Work and rehabilitation. Disability and Rehabilitation, 27(12), 685-694.

Purpose. To explore disability in women with fibromyalgia with a focus on their work situation.

Method. Review of literature on work status of women with fibromyalgia.

Results. Major differences exist between studies in reported disability and in the percentages of women working. Limitations caused by pain, fatigue, decreased muscle strength, and endurance influence work capacity. However, 34–77% of the women work. Individual adjustments in the work situation are reported. When the women find a level that matches their ability, they continue to work and find satisfaction in their work role. Many factors besides degree of impairment or disability influence whether clients with longstanding pain can remain in their work role or return to work after sickness leave.

Conclusion. The total life situation, other commitments, type of work tasks, the ability to influence the work situation, and the physical and psychosocial work environment are important factors in determining whether a person can remain in a work role. More knowledge is needed about how to adjust work conditions for people with partial work ability to the benefit of society and the individual.

Hinman, M. R. (2001). Factors influencing work disability for women who have undergone mastectomy. Women & Health, 34(2), 45-60.

The purpose of this study was to document the work status, rehabilitation practices, and barriers to work re-entry for women who have undergone mastectomy (MRM). Three independent groups of subjects included 31 female patients who were post-modified radical mastectomy (MRM),18 physical or occupational therapists working in cancer centers, and 5 employers who represented a diverse group of businesses. Patients and therapists completed written surveys regarding the post-operative rehabilitation process. Employer interviews focused on company policies and procedures related to work re-entry. Descriptive statistics documented patients’ pre- and postoperative work status and types of problems experienced postoperatively. Responses to open-`ended questions were triangulated among the three groups to identify common barriers to work re-entry.

Only 20% of women in this sample did not return to their preoperative employment, and most cited physical impairments as the reason. Nearly half of these women received no postoperative exercise instructions. Employers seemed willing and able to accommodate employees who return to work following mastectomy surgery when given specific information regarding their physical and functional limitations. These preliminary findings indicate the need for additional research that reflects the experiences of a more generalized population of patients, therapists, and employers.

Hollingsworth, D. K., & Mastroberti, C. J. (1983, June). Women, work, and disability. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 61(10), 587-591.

Presents a comprehensive review of women in the world of work, and then considers how disability affects women's work and home roles. Describes career development, labor market utilization, occupational and career mobility, achievement and attainment paths of women and disabled women as workers.

Jones, M. K., Latreille, P. L., & Sloane, P. J. (2003, November). Disability, gender and the labour market [IZA Discussion Paper No. 936]. Bonn, Germany: Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA). Retrieved March 31, 2005 from http://www.iza.org/index_html?
lang=en&mainframe=http%3A//www.iza.org/en/webcontent/publications/papers/
viewAbstract%3Fdp_id%3D936&topSelect=publications&subSelect=papers

Using data from the 2002 LFS, we examine the impact of disability on labour market outcomes by gender. Our results indicate that substantial differences in both the likelihood of employment and levels of earnings exist, despite several years of operation of the Disability Discrimination Act. Significant heterogeneity within the disabled group is identified: those suffering from mental health forms of disability fare particularly badly. Wage decompositions suggest the "penalty" for disability is greater for women than for men. Using the Baldwin and Johnson (1992) methodology, we find the employment effects associated with wage discrimination against the disabled are very small.

Jones, M. K., Latreille, P. L., & Sloane, P. J. (2004, March). Disability, gender and the labour market in Wales. Swansea, Wales: WELMERC, Department of Economics, University of Wales Swansea. Retrieved March 15, 2005 from http://www.swan.ac.uk/welmerc/DISABILITY%20GENDER%20and%20the%20LABOUR%20MARKET%20IN%20WALES%20-%20WELMERC.doc

Wales exhibits high rates of disability and inactivity, and a higher incidence of mental health problems than other parts of Britain. Using data from the Welsh Local Labour Force Survey 2001, our results indicate that the low participation rate of the disabled in Wales is partly attributable to their having fewer qualifications; marginal effects suggest education could be a potent remedy for improving their labour market status. In terms of the pay differential between disabled and non-disabled individuals, it would appear that disabled women in Wales suffer disproportionately to disabled men.

Jongbloed, L. (1998). Disability income: The experiences of women with multiple sclerosis. Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 65(4), 193-201.

Article examining the experiences of unemployed women with multiple sclerosis (MS) with 3 income support programs: the Canada/Quebec Pension Plan, long term disability insurance, and social assistance. Data are from ethnographic interviews with 23 women. Difficulties the women have experienced with the programs are discussed, including the low level of benefits in 2 of the programs, the earnings-based component of 2 of the programs, and requirements in eligibility criteria that applicants be defined as permanently unemployable. The consequences of these policies for economic status and employment reentry are discussed, along with implications for occupational therapists.

Julius, E., Wolfson, H., & Yalon-Chamovitz, S. (2003). Equally unequal: Gender discrimination in the workplace among adults with mental retardation. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment, and Rehabilitation, 20(3), 205-213.

Level of occupation and salary earned were examined in 227 adults in Israel with mental retardation to explore the correlation between gender and employment among people with mental retardation in the workplace. Women were found to be employed mainly in sheltered workshops and lower levels of occupation, and earned significantly less than men. Closer examination of each work place revealed that within each level of occupation there were no significant gender differences in salary. The findings suggest that while women with mental retardation earn lower salaries than men, this is mainly the result of their lower level of occupation.

Kutner, N. G., & Gray, H. L. (1985). Toward a model of factors influencing the hiring of women with a history of breast cancer. In M. J. Deegan & N. A. Brooks (Eds.), Women and disability: The double handicap (pp. 117-132). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.

This chapter is a study of what influences employers' decision to hire women who have had breast cancer. While most former studies have examined the experiences of job applicants, this study examines the perspective of the employer. The authors surveyed a random sample of personnel directors from an industrialized North Carolina county and found that the majority of them had personal experiences with breast cancer patients and had had mastectomy employees leave work. The study suggests that the following five factors explain much of the hiring practices: size of the company, level of sick leave benefits, company involvement with employees' medical insurance, employers' education, and personal experience with breast cancer. The level of knowledge about cancer did not predict the hiring decision. Thus, many of the hiring practices were determined by organizational factors and the personal characteristics of the employer. The decision to hire or not to hire former breast cancer patients was not based on medical factors. Most of the factors which determined the decision to hire women with breast cancer had nothing to do with the individual woman, instead the decision to hire was more likely to be determined by the employers' personal experiences with women who have had breast cancer. These findings suggest that the decision whether to hire women with breast cancer can have discriminatory overtones.

Lee, S., Oh, G., Hartmann, H., & Gault, B. (2004, February). The impact of disabilities on mothers' work participation: Examining differences between single and married mothers. Washington, DC: Institute for Women’s Policy Research. Retrieved March 16, 2005 from http://www.womenphil.org/usr_doc/DisabilityMothersWork.pdf

This study examines the prevalence of disabilities among mothers and children and analyzes how these disabilities influence mothers' work participation. Analyses focus on differences between single and married mothers. The effect of social support coming from family configurations and living arrangements by including the age structures of children with and without a disability, and the number of other adults in the family, are also considered. This research was supported by a Census Bureau Research Development Grant through the Joint Center for Poverty Research at the University of Chicago and Northwestern University.

Lindstrom, L. E., & Benz, M. R. (2002). Phases of career development: Case studies of young women with learning disabilities. Exceptional Children, 69(1), 67-83. Retrieved April 11, 2005 from http://journals.sped.org/EC/Archive_Articles/VOLUME69NUMBER1FALL
2002_EC_Article_5.pdf 

This study investigates the career development process for young women with learning disabilities. Case study methodology was utilized to understand the key elements influencing career choices for young women with learning disabilities who had graduated from high school and entered the workforce. Case study findings revealed three distinct phases of career development that were labeled (a) unsettled, (b) exploratory, and (c) focused. Phases of career development varied along two dimensions—stability of employment and clarity of career goals.
Key elements that seemed to influence the phases of career development included individual motivation and personal determination, family support and advocacy, opportunities for career exploration, on-the-job or postsecondary vocational training, and supportive work environments.

Lustig, D. C., & Strauser, D. C. (2004, April/June). Employee benefits for individuals with disabilities: The effect of race and gender. Journal of Rehabilitation, 70(2), 38-46.

This study investigated the impact of race and gender on access to typical employee benefits for individuals with disabilities. The authors analyzed data on the proportion of employers offering specific benefits. The study focused on two areas: (a) Males with disabilities were compared with females with disabilities and males and females with disabilities were compared with workers in the general population, (b) Caucasians with disabilities were compared with Non-Caucasians with disabilities and Caucasians and Non-Caucasians with disabilities were compared with workers in the general population. The results show that there were (a) no differences between males and females with disabilities, (b) minimal differences between Caucasians and Non-Caucasians with disabilities, and (c) significant differences between individuals with disabilities and workers in the general population. Implications for rehabilitation counselors is discussed.

MacRae, N. (2005). Women and work: A ten year retrospective. Work, 24(4), 331.

A look back, after a decade, at the issues surrounding women and work. Work options, childcare and family concerns, the glass ceiling, sexual harassment, women entrepreneurs, race and poverty, unpaid work, and women with disabilities are discussed.

MacDonald, M., Phipps, S., & Lethbridge, L. (2005, March). Taking its toll: The influence of paid and unpaid work on women’s well-being. Feminist Economics, 11(1), 63-94.

This paper examines gender differences in the impact of paid and unpaid productive activities on well-being. Using recent Canadian data, we examine the time spent by prime-age women and men (25–54) on paid work, childcare, eldercare, household work, volunteering, and education, and then assess its impact on stress and work-life balance.Using multivariate analyses, we show that women's greater hours of unpaid work contribute to women experiencing more stress than men, and of that work, hours spent on eldercare and housework are more stressful than those spent on childcare. We also examine the influence of job characteristics and spouses' paid and unpaid work time on stress. Neither spouse's unpaid work nor most job characteristics alleviate stress, once work hours are controlled. However, the evidence suggests that women, more so than men, use strategies such as self-employment to improve work-life balance.

Martire, L. M., & Stephens, M. A. P. (2003, February). Juggling parent care and employment responsibilities: The dilemmas of adult daughter caregivers in the workforce - Brief report. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 48(2-3), 167-173.

We review findings from our programmatic research on adult daughters who are simultaneously involved in the roles of employee and care provider to an impaired parent. Two opposing theoretical perspectives on the health effects of occupying these two roles are described, and empirical findings that bear on each perspective are presented. Our review reveals that, consistent with the competing demands perspective, parent care and employment often conflict with one another. Consistent with the energy expansion perspective, however, there is evidence that holding these two roles can be beneficial for the health of adult daughters.

Mason, M. G. (2004). Working against odds: Stories of disabled women's work lives. Lebanon, NH: Northeastern University Press.

In this well-crafted ethnographic study of disabled women's relationship with work, Mary Grimley Mason describes the viewpoints, struggles, strategies, and triumphs of eighteen women with a range of physical and sensory impairments. She relates how each came to terms with her disability and achieved self-identity and self-sufficiency in an able-bodied world.

Drawing on thirty extensive interviews, Mason skillfully interweaves her own experience of childhood polio with the voices of impaired women across generations and from diverse race, ethnic, class, and work backgrounds. Although each woman's story and perspective are unique, the compelling narratives in this illuminating and teachable volume reveal shared concerns and feelings about the ways in which the disabled see themselves, how others perceive the impaired, and how our workplace culture perpetuates the double hindrance of gender and disability discrimination. The women profiled here express in their own words the process of claiming their disability and integrating it into their identity, the adjustment to various dependencies and caregivers, and approaches to coping with social discrimination and marginalization. They also discuss overcoming such obstacles in the workplace as an employer's refusal to grant an interview, lack of accommodations after employment, and negative stereotyping on the job or in job placement.

In these accounts we meet, for example, Debbie, born with cerebral palsy, who struggled to get her family to accept her as she is; Barbara, born with orthopedic problems, who confronted her mother's fear that she would not be employed or find a husband; and Adrienne, blind from birth, who aggressively confronted discrimination in the workplace through litigation.

Taken together, the stories of these ordinary yet remarkable individuals build a sense of community. Working against Odds tells disabled women that they are not alone in grappling with the tremendous barriers to independence and helps able-bodied readers understand the challenging life choices and work experiences of those with impairments. As a whole, the insightful book offers an intimate view of disability history and issues in America.

McDonough, P. A. (1997). The social patterning of work disability among women in Canada. In K. F. Schriner, S. N. Barnartt & B. M. Altman (Eds.), Disabled women and public policy: Where we’ve been, where we’re going [Special Issue]. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 8(1&2).

Examines effects of functional limitations, the labor market, life stage, and family responsibilities, on whether or not a woman is able to be gainfully employed; based on data relating to women aged 20-64 from the household component of the 1986 StatisticsCanada Health and Activity Limitation Survey (HALS).

Moore, C. L., Feist-Price, S., & Alston, R. J. (2002, January/March). Competitive employment and mental retardation: Interplay among gender, race, secondary psychiatric disability, and rehabilitation services. Journal of Rehabilitation, 68(1), 14-19.

Rehabilitation outcomes of persons with mild/moderate mental retardation were analyzed. Seven variables were used to predict one dichotomous and one continuous criterion variable: work status at closure and level of income, respectively. Findings indicated that consumers with mild/moderate mental retardation who received job placement services achieved competitive jobs at a significantly greater rate than those who did not. Results are presented for each criterion variable and the implications of the findings for service and research are discussed.

Moore, D. L. (2005, Summer). Expanding the view: The lives of women with severe work disabilities in context. Journal of Counseling and Development (JCD), 83(3), 343-348.

The purpose of this investigation was to explore the ways that women with severe work disabilities (SWDs) attributed meaning to their lives, experiences, and decisions. The author used qualitative research methodology and grounded theory procedures to analyze data obtained from videotaped interviews, discussion of videotaped interviews, and prolonged and persistent participant observations to shed light on the lives and experiences of women with SWDs, a previously understudied group. Implications for counseling are discussed.

Moss, P., & Dyck, I. (1996). Inquiry into environment and body: Women, work and chronic illness. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 14(6), 737-753.

The recent call for the reorientation of analysis in medical geography to more critical approaches has been met with both enthusiasm and caution. Critical theories of health and health care services are emerging, which complement the well-developed focus on the spatial aspects of disease and service delivery. Yet in reconceptualising the links between place, space, and health, care must be taken in theorising in context experiences of health and illness. By context we mean the richly textured social formation wherein social relations are threads of a tapestry woven together. One topic which lends itself to such an inquiry is how material and discursive bodies combine to create identities for women with chronic illness around issues of gender and (dis)ability within the context of the wider social political economy. In this paper, we propose a feminist political economic analysis of environment and body as an addition to the critical frameworks emerging in medical geography. We first discuss what a radical body politics entails conceptually. Then we make suggestions with regard to undertaking such inquiry, using in illustration empirical work on women's reshaping of their environment in response to chronic illness. This type of investigation extends previous work on the formation of women's identities, experiences of chronic illness, and the materiality of everyday life. Last, we recast the concepts of environment, body, and identity formation while maintaining a commitment to the fluidity of conceptual and material boundaries.

Murdoch, M., Gustafson, G. L., & The Independent Living Resource Centre-St. John’s. (2005). Women with disabilities and adaptive technology in the workplace: Participatory action research and applied principles of independent living - Full report. St. John’s, Newfoundland: The Independent Living Resource Centre. Retrieved August 30, 2005 from http://www.ilrc.nf.ca/Waat/select_report.htm

“This report provides an overview of a research project that examined the experiences and perspectives of unemployed, underemployed, and employed women with disabilities, and their knowledge of and need for adaptive technology… We found that despite education, work experience, and involvement in various training programs the majority of women with disabilities were unable to find sustained employment with a living wage. Although most women with disabilities have improved access to education, policies to advance use of adaptive technology in the labour market have not kept pace. Consequently, women with disabilities are demonstrably and significantly excluded from employment.”

National Center for Family Literacy. (2000, February). Learning disabilities and gender bias in an employment context. Momentum: NCFL’s Quarterly Newsletter. Retrieved April 6, 2005 from http://www.famlit.org/Publications/Momentum/February2000/ld.cfm

This short article discusses how family literacy programs are more involved with women with learning disabilities and discusses the relationship between learning disabilities in women, especially with undiagnosed or unidentified learning disabilities and the difficulties often faced in moving from a welfare program to gainful employment. Throughout they offer resources on learning disabilities especially for literacy programs.

Najarian, C. G. (2004). 'Between worlds': How college educated deaf women negotiate education, mothering, and work. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY.

This qualitative study investigates the everyday lives of college educated deaf women in their family, educational, mothering and activism, and paid work experiences. The study is based on life history research with ten deaf women in two different cities in the northeast. The data reveal the seemingly "invisible" and often visible work involved as these women negotiate places for themselves and resist various obstacles in their paid and unpaid work lives. The women develop strategies to negotiate being part of the deaf world, hearing world, or somewhere, as they describe, "in between." Despite being educated orally and usually forbidden to learn sign language in their early years, the women are often tracked into working in deaf work environments, specifically into teaching professions. As part of their mothering and activist work, the women also make political decisions about their identities as well as those of their children when they make decisions about how to communicate in their families. The study also shows how institutions such as schools, families, and workplaces shape the women's work experiences and their identities. By uncovering the life experiences of these deaf women, these findings have implications for our education programs and hiring procedures.

Neal-Barnett, A., & Mendelson, L. L. (2003, March). Obsessive Compulsive Disorder in the workplace: An invisible disability. In M. E. Banks, & E. Kaschak (Eds.), Women with visible and invisible disabilities: Multiple intersections, multiple issues, multiple therapies, Part I [Special issue]. Women & Therapy, 26(1/2), 169-178.

In this paper we examine the role of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) in the workplace lives of women. Classified as a disability under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), the secrecy associated with the disorder makes it invisible to everyone except the women who suffer from it. Left untreated and without appropriate forms of support and accommodation, OCD often creates difficulties in the working lives of women. However, with appropriate treatment, education, and support, women with OCD are successful and bring unique and valuable assets to their jobs. Case studies and a recent court case are used to illustrate our recommendations.

Noonan, B. M., Gallor, S. M., & Hensler-McGinnis, N. F. (2004, January). Challenge and success: A qualitative study of the career development of highly achieving women with physical and sensory disabilities. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51(1), 68-80.

This qualitative study examined the career development experiences of 17 highly achieving women with physical and sensory disabilities. Interviews were conducted and data were analyzed using modified grounded theory strategies (A. L. Strauss & J. Corbin, 1998). The emergent theoretical model was conceptualized as a system of influences organized around a core Dynamic Self, which included identity constructs (disability, gender, racial/ethnic/cultural), personality characteristics, and belief in self. Myriad contextual inputs included Developmental Opportunities (education, peer influences), Family Influences (background and current), Disability Impact (ableism, stress and coping, health issues), Social Support (disabled and nondisabled communities, role models and mentors), Career Attitudes and Behaviors (work attitudes, success strategies, leadership/pioneering), and Sociopolitical Context (social movements, advocacy). Implications for theory, research, practice, and policy are discussed.

O’Brien, R. (2005). Bodies in revolt: Gender, disability and an alternative ethic of care. Oxford, UK: Taylor & Francis, Inc.

Bodies in Revolt argues that the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) could humanize capitalism by turning employers into care-givers, creating an ethic of care in the workplace. Unlike other feminists, Ruth O'Brien bases her ethics not on benevolence, but rather on self-preservation. She relies on Deleuze and Guattari's interpretation of Spinoza and Foucault's conception of corporeal resistance to show how a workplace ethic that is neither communitarian nor individualistic can be based upon the rallying cry "one for all and all for one."

O'Brien contends that, to instigate such a revolt, disability must be viewed as an integral part of life, an ever-evolving, indeed, almost universal aspect of the human condition. This recognition transforms the ADA from a narrow civil rights law into the most revolutionary labor/civil rights law that the United States has ever seen. Its employment provisions would do nothing less than undercut capitalism by making employers provide reasonable accommodations on the basis of human needs instead of profits. Accommodating one person sets precedents for all. Absent a divide between individual rights and collective action, persons with disabilities become Foucauldian agents of resistance or "bodies in revolt," undermining the standardization and dehumanization of the post-Fordist political economy.

O’Brien, R. (2005, Winter). Other voices at the workplace: Gender, disability, and an alternative ethic of care. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 30(2), 1529-1555.

O’Brien discusses about the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) employment provisions that will make employers take into account the ongoing needs of their workers with traditional and nontraditional disabilities alike. She stresses that the ADA transforms disability into a nonessential socially constructed category, defining a disability by virtue of what a person cannot do rather than in terms of a specific medical condition or disease.

O'Hara, B. (2004). Twice penalized: Employment discrimination against women with disabilities. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 15(1), 27-34.

This article examines wage discrimination during the initial stages of employment using panel data from the Survey of Income and Program Participation. Women with disabilities are twice disadvantaged in the labor market: They face possible discrimination based on both gender and disability status. This article focuses on transitions into new employment. Two key variables indicate the circumstances in which a woman starts working at a new employer: (a) a planned employment transition or (b) finding employment after leaving a former employer for an unplanned reason or after being unemployed. The empirical evidence suggests that wage discrimination is prevalent; discrimination occurs across personal and employment characteristics. Although employment transitions resulted in lower wages, reasonable scenarios that involve personal choices as opposed to discrimination could not be eliminated. For instance, a worker with disabilities may change employers and accept a lower wage if she gains nonwage benefits (e.g., accommodations or health insurance).

Olney, M. F., & Kuper, E. V. (1998). The situation of women with developmental disabilities: Implications for practitioners in supported employment. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 29(2), 3-8.

Article reviewing the literature on supported employment for women with developmental disabilities. The experience of women with developmental disabilities is compared and contrasted with that of women with physical disabilities. Topics include: developmental disabilities and employment; disability and minority group membership; special needs and concerns of women with disabilities; attitudes toward the sexuality of women with developmental disabilities; impact of gender and disability on self-concept; gender and vocational outcomes. Concludes with recommendations for change in supported employment.

Olson, D., Cioffi, A., Yovanoff, P., & Mank, D. (2000, April). Gender differences in supported employment. Mental Retardation, 38(2), 89–96.

Questions about gender equity have been asked in many aspects of the disability field and have resulted in findings that women with disabilities have significantly different experiences than do men. We analyzed an existing database of information on supported employment and natural supports to ascertain whether gender plays an important role in the employment of people with mental retardation. The findings suggest that there are several important differences. Although women were perceived as being more socially appropriate on several dimensions, they worked in jobs traditionally stereotyped by gender. Women also typically worked fewer hours than did men and, therefore, earned less money, although not statistically significantly so. The pattern of findings suggests parallels with the broader society.

Porterfield, S. L. (2002, November). Work choices of mothers in families with children with disabilities. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 64(4), 972-981.

This study used a sample of single & married mothers with children under the age of 20 drawn from the 1992 & 1993 panels of the Survey of Income & Program Participation to examine one facet of the economic implications that a child with disabilities brings to a family. Specifically, the choice of women with children to work full time, part time, or not at all was estimated as a function of individual & family characteristics, including the number & ages of children with disabilities. The presence of young children, with or without disabilities, has a significant negative influence on the work choice of both single & married mothers. However, once children enter elementary school, single mothers with disabled or nondisabled children & married mothers with nondisabled children are significantly more likely to enter the labor market or increase their labor market hours than are married mothers of school-age children with disabilities.

Randolph, D. S., & Andresen, E. M. (2004, June). Disability, gender, and unemployment relationships in the United States from the behavioral risk factor surveillance system. Disability & Society, 19(4), 403-414.

Women with disabilities face simultaneous oppression in employment due to discrimination with regard to disability and gender. This article investigates the potential disparity in participation in employment for women, particularly women with disabilities. We analysed weighted data from disability surveillance programs and the Behavioural Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) on over 47,000 respondents. The disability BRFSS was a telephone survey in 11 states and Washington DC. Logistic regression analyses produced adjusted models of the association between gender and employment. Compared with people without disabilities, there were disparities found for people with disabilities, and women with and without disabilities, with the larger discrepancy for women without disabilities. Additional detail about level of employment is needed to make conclusive statements; however, it is clear that disparities in employment continue to exist for women, regardless of their disability status.

Reed, C. A. (1999). Women with disabilities making the transition back to work: Psychosocial barriers and interventions. Work, 13(1), 67-72.

Article about the psychosocial needs of women with disabilities in relation to employment reentry, and how vocational and career development programs can respond to these needs. Discusses psychosocial barriers including social isolation, sociocultural stereotypes, perceived lack of self-efficacy, role perceptions, and loss of perceived personal control. Identifies career development strategies that can be used by service providers.

Reisine, S. T., & Fifield, J. (1988, December). Defining disability for women and the problem of unpaid work. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 12(4), 401-415.

Discusses political, theoretical, and methodological issues in defining and measuring paid and unpaid work disability. Presents results of study analyzing disability in paid work and unpaid family work among 206 women with rheumatoid arthritis, demonstrating feasibility of measuring disability in family work and showing that women experience significant limitations in homemaker functioning and in paid work roles.

Roessler, R. T., Turner, R. C., Robertson, J. L., & Rumrill, P. D. (2005). Gender and perceived illness severity: Differential indicators of employment concerns for adults with multiple sclerosis. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin (ARCA), 48(2), 66-74.

Men and women with different levels of perceived severity of multiple sclerosis (MS) completed a survey eliciting their employment concerns. Results indicated that adults with MS were dissatisfied with 6 types of employment services and policies: (1) employer support, (2) program knowledge, (3) external support, (4) service provision, (5) work potential, and (6) prescriptions and health care. Findings also indicated gender and severity interaction, which are discussed in terms of implications for rehabilitation.

Rucker, T. F., Rice, N. D., Lustig, D. C., & Strauser, D. R. (2003). Gender differences in rehabilitation counseling consumer involvement and employment outcomes. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 34(2), 22-26.

Study examined gender differences regarding consumer involvement in vocational rehabilitation counseling programs and the employment outcomes of that program. Employment status was measured two months after participants completed their programs. Results indicated that while women reported being more involved in their counseling programs than men, the men reported being employed more than the women.

Russo, N. F., & Jansen, M. A. (1988). Women, work, and disability: Opportunities and challenges. In M. Fine & A. Asch (Eds.), Women with disabilities: Essays in psychology, culture, and politics [Health, Society, and Policy Series] (pp. 229-244). Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

This chapter examines the employment of women with disabilities in the context of the changes in women's labor force participation in general. The past few decades have seen a revolutionary increase in women's participation in the paid labor force, especially noticeable has been the increased number of working mothers, and this has significantly influenced the national employment policy. The authors argue that women with disabilities have not been a part of the women's employment revolution and that employment policies still assume that working women are able-bodied. Very little attention has been devoted to the disadvantaged employment status of women with disabilities. While men with disabilities have serious employment problems, women with disabilities are significantly worse off. For example, compared to men, women with disabilities are less likely to receive quality training for competitive employment. The authors also demonstrate how the economy in general, and the specialized disability services in particular, restrict the employment opportunities and lives of women with disabilities. The chapter also addresses opportunities and challenges for research, education, and rehabilitation strategies designed to change the situation.

Sales, E., & Frieze, I. H. (1984). Women and work: Implications for mental health. In L. E. Walker (Ed.), Women and mental health policy [Sage Yearbooks in Women's Policy Studies] (pp. 229 246). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

One of the most noted social trends in recent decades is the dramatic increase in women's labor force participation. This chapter examines what implications this may have for women's mental health. Because women have been heavy users of mental health services some authors have suggested that women's increased labor force participation, especially mothers with young children, might increase stress and result in more mental health problems. Others have suggested that because work is central to adult adjustment and a major source of satisfaction, women's increased labor force participation should have the opposite effect; it should improve their mental health. After a thorough review of the literature on the topic the authors conclude that the evidence regarding the mental health consequences of work for women shows many positive relationships while few negative effects have been found. They state that work is clearly a source of self-esteem and satisfaction for most women. They also point out that the group of women who are most at risk of having mental health problems are non-white, nonmarried, nonemployed women, and women who lived in social isolation with limited roles. This suggests that the women who may most need mental health services may be those not in the work arena, especially women who are isolated or homebound because of young children or limited social roles.

Sim, F. G. (1999). Integrating women and girls with disabilities into mainstream vocational training: A practical guide. Bangkok: ILO East Asia Multidisciplinary Advisory Team, ILO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. Retrieved March 4, 2005 from http://www.ilo.org/public/english/region/asro/bangkok/ability/
download/wwd.pdf

“This guide is intended primarily for instructors and administrators in vocational training institutes in both the public and private sectors, and It will also be useful to policy-makers in vocational training as well as in employers’ and workers’ organizations. The guide discusses the main issues relating to the seriously disadvantaged position of women with disabilities and provides basic information about disability. It suggests practical actions for vocational training institutes to increase the enrolment, participation, and integration of women with disabilities into their training programmes. By doing so, it is hoped that instructors and administrators of vocational institutes will be better informed to promote equality of opportunity for disabled women in training, and in subsequent employment. While most disabled persons can participate in mainstream training, this guide is geared primarily to those who require minimum support in the learning environment.”

Siporin, S. & Lysack, C. (2004, July/August). Quality of life and supported employment: A case study of three women with developmental disabilities. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 58(4), 455-465.

This paper presents the findings of a qualitative case study of the quality of life of three women with developmental disabilities. In-depth interview data were collected from the women who had previously worked in a sheltered workshop environment and were, at the time of study, working in supported employment in the community. Interviews were also conducted with each woman’s job coach and a family member or close friend. Onsite observations of the women in their supported employment environments were also undertaken. Results show that the women’s own perceptions about their quality of life were not always as family members and job coaches expected, and that the purported benefits of supported employment for the three women with developmental disabilities were not always realized. Occupational therapists have an opportunity to facilitate the occupational performance of adults with developmental disabilities but they must be willing to engage in wider health and social policy change if they are to make significant gains.

Szalda-Petree, A., Seekins, T., & Innes, B. (1999, June). Ruralfacts: Women with disabilities: Employment, income, and health. Missoula, MT: Developmental Disabilities Health Promotion Project, The University of Montana Rural Institute. Retrieved April 8, 2005 from http://rtc.ruralinstitute.umt.edu/RuDis/DisWomenFact.htm

This fact sheet provides statistics and briefly discusses how employment and health can be more difficult for women with disabilities to access in rural communities.

Tucker, A., Moore, J. E., & Weber, J. (1999). Inclusion of legally blind women in the Randolph-Sheppard program: Issues and practices. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 93(1), 7-15.

Article reporting on a national survey of directors of the Business Enterprise Program or BEP, also called the Vending Facility Program or the Randolph-Sheppard program, regarding the representation of women who are legally blind among licensed facility managers. Responses were received from 40 of the 50 directors contacted (the state director in each of the 49 states with a BEP, and in the District of Columbia). The study documented the level of inclusion of women in the BEP, and investigated the relationship between the percentage of female facility managers in the program and such variables as type of facility, race-ethnicity, and stages of training. These empirical data are augmented by suggestions from the BEP directors regarding the strategies they use to recruit women into the program and the strategies they believe that state licensing agencies could use to recruit more applicants.

Women’s Bureau. (1992). Women with work disabilities [Facts on Working Women No. 92.2]. Washington, DC: Department of Labor.

The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) should provide disabled working women with better employment prospects and greater earning capacities. The ADA prohibits discrimination in all terms and conditions of employment against qualified disabled persons who can perform the essential functions of a given job with or without reasonable accommodation. More disabled working women are employed today than 10 years ago, and they are more likely to be employed full time; however, women with work disabilities are still three times as likely as nondisabled women to be unemployed. Black women workers are much more likely to be disabled than white women workers (13.8% versus 7.7%). The incidence of work disability increases with age. The percentage of disabled women working in service occupations is higher than the percentage of nondisabled women, and the disparity in the earnings of disabled and nondisabled working women widened significantly during the 1980s. A number of government organizations will assist disabled persons seeking employment, and the General Services Administration provides special electronic equipment to disabled employees of the federal government.

Wright, A. G. (2000, May). Women and disability: Perspectives on education, community living & employment. Richmond, VA: Virginia Board for People with Disabilities. Retrieved January 2, 2005 from http://www.vaboard.org/downloads/WomenReport.pdf

In the last few years, issues concerning women and disability have expanded not only in terms of research devoted to them but also in terms of the responses of women and girls with disabilities. Many have formed various approaches to breaking down the barriers and therefore addressing their distinct needs. This report contains selected information on a variety of topics, including perspectives on employment.